Polymerase Chain Reaction Problem Solutions with Assignment Help

Polymerase chain reactions are the specific terms used in stating different compounds and sates of the carbon compound which are specially used in a particular branch of chemistry called the organic chemistry. Polymerase chain reactions are the specific reactions which take place between several carbon compounds under particular circumstances. These invariably tough reaction chains are a part of the study of organic chemistry and thus the chain reactions are considerably hard to remember or to be memorized.Many individual students can be found who really struggle a lot in remembering these chain reaction solutions and putting the reaction chains in practical world implementation like the exam. Even the assignment problems specified with the polymerase chain reaction topic is really tricky and tough to complete as the writing procurement of correct reaction statements are not at all easy.Finding a help which eventually provides the correct polymerase chain reaction and reaction statem ent involvements, also is going to give you strong headache as you will not find any profound help which can help you in completing the particular assignment. â€Å"ASSIGNMEMTHELP. NET† is really a stand-alone online website which can be utilized to collect all the correct information and the polymerase chain reaction nomenclature. Polymerase chain reaction is the path of change and improvement of the states of the plastic molecules.Plastic is basically a carbon compound high on the carbon density and possesses plasticity. Thousands of individual plastic molecules get bonded together in the procurement of producing polymer compound from the pure plastic granules. â€Å"ASSIGNMENTHELP. NET† is such an educational website which involves the profound solutions providing procurements to the individual students who seek guidelines to write and complete any polymerase chain reaction assignment problem assigned to them with a specified topic involvement.Online tutorial videos and tutorial classes also can be considered as helpful consignments in completing any organic chemistry assignment problem. The help from the expert individuals with the approval from the expert panel of world renowned professors can be immensely helpful in completing any polymerase chain reaction assignment problem involvement as you get all the required help online with just few clicks of your mouse.You can opt for different communication establishment options that are available for you, which will really help you in finding better solutions and detailed information to complete one difficult polymerase chain reaction assignment problem. Certain communication options are available to choose from as you can opt for the email conversation where you will have to send one email containing the different aspects and required fields about which you need the information.You can also ask the direct question by email as you will get your point-to-point required answer completely free from a ny plagiarism. Also, you can opt for the live chat option or phone conferencing to discuss about the matter of your requirement. You will be amazed to see that the very website will take responsibility of providing you with several study materials and guidelines to write a perfect assignment on the particular topic once you get signed up with a considerable amount of signing up or admission charge to the website

The lost princess

The room was damp and cold, cold with marks of water dripping down the unhomely painted walls. The paving slabs were freezing and impersonally decorated, there were no carpets covering them. There was no life nor humanity in the semidark chamber. There was no door nor curtains on the tiny window that looked on to the north, making the room even more dark and mysterious. It was unhomely and unlived. No one entered the freezing cube that composed the enchanted, shadowed lodging. It was empty of life even though the passage outside was full of it. The place was avoided by everyone. It had such a sense of emptiness†¦ When the threshold was crossed, a wave of uncontrollable panic entered into the intruders heart. The floor boards under the feet felt as cold as ice, sharpening the freezing terror. The walls were clammy, you couldn't lean on them†¦ It smelt damp. The air entered your throat and cut it like a knife. It felt dry and it was hard to swallow. The fear crept into your heart slowly but unceasingly and made its self bigger and stronger, petrifying you completely. It was like a serpents venom, spreading through your blood paralysing you vein by vein, artery by artery†¦ She entered the poisoned room. No sound was to be heard except for the faint drip, drip of water on the floor. For the first time in the room's history, it all failed. She laughed. It was a delightful laugh. The type you hear when a child is hugged by her mother. She frowned as the echo slowly returned to her. She felt a sudden warmth around her. She noticed that the floor was now covered in thick Indian carpets. It all felt cosy and warm under her small feet. She moved with the glamour and gentleness of a deer, so delicate and fragile†¦ There was a lovely scent all over the room. It was like someone had opened a bottle of the loveliest perfume and let it mix with the air. It smelt of the finest vanilla. Looking out of the window you could see the source of that magnificent smell. There was a small garden full of small vanilla plants, starting to bloom in the night's cold air. The room was now painted in the finest violet. The walls had stopped the dripping and sweating, and instead of the faint drip, drip you could hear a small bird tweeting in a tiny cage at the far end of the room. Soon she felt sleepy and noticed a current of warm air picking her up and carrying her to a cosy four-poster. There she slept for hours and hours†¦ As she slept the walls started to drip again soaking the silk carpets and returning the room to its old state to such an extent, that after a few minutes only the four-poster stood in the middle of the icy room. There was no sign of the tiny princess. Instead there was a little deer skipping and hopping under the moonlight in a garden full of tiny vanilla flowers.

African American Literature Essay Example for Free (#2)

African American Literature Essay African American (597) , African (466) , Short story (403) , American literature (133) , African american literature (7) company About StudyMoose Contact Careers Help Center Donate a Paper Legal Terms & Conditions Privacy Policy Complaints ? African American literature has a strong deeply rooted background in the history of America, thus giving the writers categorized in this genre a strong message to convey in any story they chose to tell. From tragic life moments to happy life moments, the writers have the ability to tell their story in a variety of methods. This canon of literature serves as a diary for the African American community. All of the literary works that compile this genre reflect the many twists and turns a collective group of persons must endure while struggling to achieve a place in history. The following discussion of three historically significant African American stories reflects the struggles one race of persons had to endure on their journey throughout various time periods in America. The Short Stories In the short story, My White Folks Treated us Good by Mariah Hines the author describes in first person account of a situation when African American slaves were treated well in comparison to the stories of abuse, rape, and neglect most persons are accustom to reading from this era. The slaves never went hungry, always had clothes to wear, were able to work under their own accord, always treated with respect, and were told to take Sundays off while also being encouraged to attend church on Sundays. The slaves were in fact treated so well that when they were free to leave, they choose to remain at their former master’s farm and continued working for him. Hines concluded the Master continued to support his former slaves. Hines stated â€Å"Master helped us much as he could. Some of us he gave a cow or mule or anything he could spare to help us (p. 34). † Moving forward in time, the short story Sweat by Zora Neale Hurston describes a situation of domestic abuse in a long term relationship between a wife, Delia Jones, and her husband, Sykes Jones. Sykes enjoyed torturing Delia, he would find ways to make her job as a washwoman more difficult by kicking the clothes across the room or by scaring her with ways related to her fear of snakes. Sykes enjoyed fighting; he in fact enjoyed it so much so that he intentionally picked fights with Delia. This type of torture strained their marriage to the point of near silence on a daily basis. Sykes thought it to be a good idea to bring a rattlesnake into their home. The rattlesnake got lose in the home, Delia was able to get outside the home but Sykes remained in the home and was attacked in their bedroom. Sykes yelled to Delia for help and comfort, but she was unable to come to him related to fear. Delia finally walked to the door, but due to the nature of his injuries and the distance to the doctor she understood he would not make it through this attack, therefore she allowed him to pass in their backyard. â€Å"She could scarcely reach the chinaberry tree, where she waited in the growing heat while inside she knew the cold river was creeping up and up to extinguish that eye which much known by now that she knew (p. 108). † This story shows how those who choose to abuse others always pay for those actions in the end. Alice Walker wrote the story Nineteen Fifty-Five, about a young white singer, Traynor, who purchased a song from a young African American woman, Gracie Mae, and went on to become famous after recording and releasing his own version. His version of Gracie Mae’s song continued to eat away at Gracie Mae for the rest of her life. It did not have the same meaning, nor was it loved by his fans for the same reasons she hoped it would be. The fans loved Traynor, not the song. Traynor continued to keep in contact with Gracie Mae throughout his time in the army, touring, marriages, and divorces. Then towards after many years, contact stopped and Traynor was found dead after 15 wives and a troubled road in the end. Gracie Mae lived vicariously through Traynor and his portrayal of her song. Gracie Mae herself lived quite happily through the birth of many children, the divorce and/or death of three husbands, the showering of gifts from Traynor, and his ultimate death. Gracie Mae did have a connection to Traynor that flowed deeper than her song. â€Å"One night I dreamed Traynor has split up with his fifteenth wife p. 297). † Due to the stereotypes and prejudices of this time period Gracie Mae and Traynor were never able to express the emotional connection they felt between each other. Common Literary Conventions Literary conventions and themes were similar in the stories; connotations, culture, undertones, and main characters were alike. The three stories were written in first person and portrayed a personal struggle endured by each main character. The main character was always female, strong, and independent in different way. The stories span three different periods of time, yet still reflecting similar struggles in very different settings. These conventions are important when connecting the messages of these stories. Each has a story of struggle, some are internal while others are outward, and each woman must find inner strength to change or cope with their situations. Beginning with My White Folks Treated us Good, this story was historically important in relation to conveying the happiness that could be found in such a dire situation as slavery. Hines showed not all slavery conditions were adverse or abusive; there was still the possibility of enjoying life, and gaining independence by getting the break needed, such as the freeing of all slaves, to make one’s own life better. In Sweat, Hurstson was able write a story about a woman able to persevere in a dreadful situation of both mental and physical abuse. During this time in history, women were not able to be independent and outspoken due to a fear of judgment or increased abuse. Delia was given the chance to be free from the abuses of Sykes and took that chance by allowing him to die from his injuries, thus resulting in her freedom. Following in the same suit, Nineteen Fifty-Five expressed the internal struggle of a woman’s desire to be understood and independent. Gracie Mae wanted to sing her own song and live her own life, without connection to a version of her song that did not represent the original intent. Gracie Mae was happy with her life, but was never free from what the release of her song brought to her life. Conclusion Culturally, these stories are important to all American’s. The historical significance of these stories and the emphasis on equality places a connotation of acceptance and availability of equal opportunity to all persons regardless of color, social class, age, race, gender, or personal situation. African Americans are able to tell their personal stories of struggles and triumphs through literature. This literature is a valuable tool for all persons wanting to educate themselves about significant times in American history. References Young, A. (1996). African American Literature: A brief Introduction and Anthology. New York, New York: HarperCollins College Publishers. African American Literature. (2016, Dec 18).

Society likes to put us into little boxes. Male, female, black, white, Essay

Society likes to put us into little boxes. Male, female, black, white, homosexual, heterosexualeverything exists as a binary opposition, with no room for the - Essay Example Using a broad explanation, binary opposition is often a hierarchical tool that is used to pit one social group against another. It is generally a pair of theoretical opposites (Wikipedia.org) that justifies human thought tendencies, such as heterosexual-homosexual opposition, which often allows one side to label the other using stereotypical guidelines. Whenever you have a binary opposition, one of the definitions is usually marked in a negative kind of way. In the case of the hetero-homosexual binarism, invariably homosexual is the one that is marked (Fairyington, 2004). Across the nation, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities are facing the challenge of advancing civil rights on the local and state levels (Otis, 2004), often finding small successes in legal battles while still plagued with societal binary opposition. For those individuals with a minority-based sexual identity, such as the homosexual, finding a middle ground within society poses more of a challenge. Sexuality research currently needs to reexamine critically its constructs of sexual orientation and identify for theoretical inconsistencies and simplistic assumptions about the nature of sexual desire continue to plague it (Paul, 1985). To highlight this statement, the "simplistic assumptions" are often driven by societys lack of education or exposure to the homosexual group and become markedly opposed to them based on conformity issues (peer to peer), misconstrued religious connotations, or falling victim to long-running, historical prejudices based on speculation rather than facts. Sexual identity is defined as an organized set of perceptions that an individual maintains about the meaning of their sexual attractions and desires, directed toward forming a sense of self within existing social categories (Frankel, 2004). With this in mind, recognizing

Developping and managing sales for Google Essay

Developping and managing sales for Google - Essay Example It is indeed one of the things that happened to the Internet and the information technology world in general. Also, Google has been expanding in business, as word of mouth has played a huge role in its success and the advertising. This goes to show the affection and praise that the people, no matter their age or where they come from, have for the Google Company. Google has its headquarters in Mountain View, California, United States, and the company's Chief Executive Officer is Dr. Eric Schmidt, who is also the Chairman of the Board. Google has devised different platforms, so as to be constantly in touch with its investors, has an 'Investor relations' program that is constantly encouraging investors to invest in the various realms of Google's business and growth. Google builds on its market share and strives to grow in an exponential manner by focusing more than anything else on a 'Build' strategy. It is perceivable that this particular strategy is serving the cause well for Google than a Hold, Divest or Harvest strategy would. The business strategy that is adopted by Google is of a niche nature, since it targets different audiences differently. The company blends its logo and themes according to the situation and people residing within a particular reachout region. Also Google focuses significantly on changes in season and era, utilizing different strategies to target different market areas. This ensures the building of long term relationships, and an understanding of Google's attachment with specific audiences. Google's success Google is famous for 'searching' all over the world. Such is the fame of this company all over the world that it has become a generic word of English and other languages, and is meant to stand for running a search for information about a particular topic on the Internet. This speaks volumes of the rise of Google as a brand and as a service in the lives of the people. Google is here to stay, as the company has been providing valuable services its users. Thus without a shadow of a doubt, Google is indeed a successful business and is renowned for being one of the first and the best in the industry. Google is considered as a success also because it is

Is English Intellectual Property Law Incapable of Protecting Essay

Is English Intellectual Property Law Incapable of Protecting Internet's Growth - Essay Example Thus, the question arises that are the existing English Intellectual Property Right Laws adequate and capable of protecting the intellectual property on the Internet from the unlimited means of infringing ways intellectual property thieves can think of? The roots of English Law of Intellectual Property can be traced back to 1709 when Statute of Anne recognized the copyrights of artists, musicians, painters and writers in their respective creative and original works. Later on, the Bern Convention in 1886 obligated all its Member States to amend their local laws to give due consideration to the copyrights of their local authors as well as to respect and provide adequate protection to the copyrighted works of foreign authors. Similarly, the Rome Convention in 1980 recognized the industrial rights of the inventors, designers and trademark owners obligating its Member States to provide protection to novel inventions, designs and marks that have the ability to distinguish the goods and ser vice from another person’s goods and service. However, the Internet was created in 1989 and its potential to disseminate information from one person to another was revealed after a long time after its creation. The intellectual property law, thus, was unaware about the legal implications which will arise once the Internet will become a social necessity of every person around the world. Most importantly, the Internet has become the virtual platform for the businesses, entrepreneurs, individual inventors, and intellectual property stakeholders to sell their products and services online without the need for spending substantial amounts on the physical assets, expenditures and human resources. The Internet allows the musicians, authors and artists to publish their work online for the viewers and readers from around the world to admire and purchase the work without waiting for years to get the music CD or the hardcover book. Thus, Internet has categorically contributed to the succ ess and popularity of the intellectual property owners around the world. On the other hand, Internet has also been criticized to become the ultimate haven for the intellectual property thieves to establish their black practices like illegal downloading of music, peer-to-peer file sharing, counterfeiting of original books, illegal copying of copyrighted pictures, illegally entering into private online databases, copying of software program codes, creation of multiple domain names using popular business trademark, passing-off one’s intellectual property as one’s own, stealing the trade secrets by hacking one’s computer and illegally infringing upon the patented inventions of the inventor and the scientists. The existing English Law of Intellectual Property comprises of Patents Act of 1977, Copyright, Designs and Patents Act of 1988, Trademarks Act of 1994 and Registered Designs Act of 1949 amended by Community Designs Regulation of 2001. These laws protect the cop yrights, designs, patents and trademarks from any use, copying, selling, importing and exporting, licensing and assigning. Moreover, the protection granted to trademarks, patents and designs is territorial in nature. Thus, if one country has granted a patent for an invention in one country, it does not guarantee similar protection in other countries too. Trade Related Intellectual Prop

Civil Rights, Women, and Diversity (summary) Essay

Civil Rights, Women, and Diversity (summary) - Essay Example She hid her sexual orientation from her coworkers, though people outside work knew that she was a lesbian. After Waits had worked for a year, one day her supervisor found out that Waits was a lesbian. She declared her plans of firing Waits without offering her a sound reason for that. Waits testified to the Congress that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation not be allowed in the workplace. She worked in Texas that offered no protection to gay and lesbian employees unlike most of the other states. Since 1994, bills have been passed instructing the organizations to base their judgment of the employees solely on the basis of their performance. The enforcement of the Employment Non-Discrimination Act would be a landmark achievement. However, this law faces extreme challenges from the religious groups and the moral conservatives that base the discrimination against homosexual employees on the religious and spiritual grounds. Advocates of the bill assert that all Americans sho uld be treated fairly and equally and solely be judged according to their performance. This fight constitutes the long history of struggle for the protection of employees’ civil rights. Slavery introduced the practice of discrimination in America. Civil rights were deemed more important than natural rights. Ratification of the US Constitution sanctioned slavery in five clauses. Congress passed constitutional amendments and civil rights acts after the Civil War to abolish slavery, but they were ineffective. Winning of the election by Hayes caused the racism to recede though it reasserted in the South in which the states adopted the Jim Crow laws. Mexican Americans, Chinese, and Japanese workers and others also faced discrimination like the African Americans. Both the American Creed and the laws had failed to abolish discrimination in the 19th and early 20th century. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 narrowed the 14th Amendment’s meaning and made it irrelevant. Ruling over th e Plessy v Ferguson case caused complete destruction of the 14th Amendment and the spread of Jim Crow laws followed. The Civil Rights Movement that was started in the late 1950s led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 whose Title VII prohibits any kind of discrimination in the workplace and enforces the disparate treatment theory has been structuring laws against discrimination till date. The overtly discriminatory signs at the workplace were pushed aside with the enforcement of this law. In the Griggs v. Duke Power case, the Supreme Court declared the requirement of diploma illegal. The EEOC gave the 80 per cent rule to define the unlawful disparate impact. This broadened the range of discrimination that Title VII could strike down. The harm caused to the black employees by past rejection laid ground for affirmative action. Executive Order 11246 is the most affirmative action’s origin. OFCCP enforced the Executive Order 11246 without establishing rigid goals of hiring for the co mpanies. OFCCP uses statistical tools to review the compliance. The Affirmative Action challenged the American Creed. Affirmative action spurred a legal debate that paralleled three basic ethical considerations of a broader debate in the society; utilitarianism, ethical theories of justice, and the ethical theories of rights. The population of working women has increased in the US. Laws offering protection from discrimination include but are not limited to The Civil Rights

Interpretation of Spss Outcomes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Interpretation of Spss Outcomes - Essay Example tions are mainly normal distributed: Normal Skewness shows that the participants’ distribution on the social influence questions were evenly distributed indicating a values fairly resembling the mean. This shows that the participants were equally statistically significant in determining the outcome. Performance expectancy questions are mainly left skewed: Left Skewness shows that the participants’ distribution on the performance expectancy questions was negative indicating a value lower than the mean. This shows that the participants were not statistically significant in determining the outcome. Effort expectancy questions are mainly left skewed: Left Skewness shows that the participants’ distribution on the intention questions was negative indicating a value lower than the mean. This shows that the participants were not statistically significant in determining the outcome. However, while some responses showed right and normal skewness, left skewness appeared more frequently. Facilitating questions are mainly left skewed, with a slight tendency to normal distribution for the last facilitating chart. Left skewness indicates that the participants’ distribution on the intention questions was mainly negative indicating a value lower than the mean. However, a slight tendency to the normal distribution shows that participants were fairly statistically significant. Perceived security risk answers are mainly normal distributed: Normal Skewed questions show that the participants’ distribution on the intention questions normal with almost even distribution and indicates a value closely tied to the mean. This shows that the participants were not statistically significant in determining the outcome. Perceived trust answers are mainly normal distributed, with a slight tendency to left skewness for the first chart: Considering the first chart, it is observed that the perceived question distribution is left skewed indicating that participants with opposing opinions

Accounting standards board Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Accounting standards board - Essay Example Accounting Standards Board (ASB) believes that the statement of principles is a narrative of the fundamental approach underlining the financial statements of all profit oriented businesses.This approach is intended to be up-to-date,consistent internally and should also be in line with all other approaches adopted in the world.Despite the statement of principle assisting in the preparation of the accounting standards,they are also used by preparers and auditors who are faced with new or emerging accounting issues in order to assist them to carry out initial analysis of the issue involved.When reporting the financial position and performance of the firm, the financial statements need to reflect the effect of all transactions of the firm. This can only be achieved by specifying and classifying the items in terms of elements. These elements include: Gains: This is defined as the increase in the ownership interest. This occurs when the company has made a profit after deducting all the expenses from the sales. For example if a business sells a commodity for 4000 and this commodity had cost it 2500. Then we are told the commodity incurred operating expenses of 300, and then we can say the commodity had a gain of 1200. (Lynn, 2004)Losses: This is defined as a decrease in the ownership interest. This occurs where the business has more expenses than the sale price. For example, if one buys his goods at 1000 and sells them at 1200, we need to deduct the cost price and other operating expenses from the selling price. ... Assets: These are rights or access to future benefits controlled by a business as result of past transactions. These include things like premises, motor vehicles, stock, and cash in hand and at bank. (Lynn, 2004) Liabilities: This is an obligation to transfer the economic benefit due to past transaction. This is what the firm has in the business that does not actually belong to it but it is borrowed. For example the business might have taken a long from the bank of 10,000 to boost the business. This 10,000 loan is referred to as a liability. Ownership Interest: This is usually what the owner of the firm has actually contributed to the business. We get it by deducting the entities liabilities from the entities assets. (Accounting Standards Board, 1999) The above elements enhance financial reporting because these are elements that are included in the profit and loss account and those to be included in the balance sheet. For example, gains and loss commonly referred to as revenue and expenses respectively are included in the profit and loss account. On the other had the Assets, liabilities and the ownership interest is included in the balance sheet. (Wood and Sangster, 1999) Matching is not Regarded as the Driver of the Recognition Process The above phrase means that the gains or a loss should not be recognised at the same time. If the effect of a transaction was to create a new asset or a liability, then the new asset or liability should not be recognised immediately in the balance sheet once there is reliable evidence of its occurrence which should be in monetary value. Unless there is no change in the net asset or the change is as a result of the capital

Negative Utilitarianism Essay Example for Free

Negative Utilitarianism Essay Most utilitarian theories deal with producing the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people. Negative utilitarianism (NU) requires us to promote the least amount of evil or harm, or to prevent the greatest amount of suffering for the greatest number. Proponents like Karl Popper, Christoph Fehige and Clark Wolf argue that this is a more effective ethical formula, since, they contend, the greatest harms are more consequential than the greatest goods. Karl Popper also referred to an epistemological argument: â€Å"It adds to clarity in the fields of ethics, if we formulate our demands negatively, i. e., if we demand the elimination of suffering rather than the promotion of happiness. † (Karl R. Popper,1945) Most forms of utilitarianism hold that we ought to do that which maximises the good and minimises the bad. There is some disagreement about what the good and the bad are whether the good is people being happy and the bad is people being unhappy, or the good is people getting what they want and the bad is people not getting what they want, or whateverbut most utilitarians agree that whatever the good and the bad are, we ought to bring about as much of the former and as little of the latter as is possible. Negative utilitarians disagree. Negative utilitarians are concerned only with minimising the bad. They dont think we ought to maximise the good and minimise the bad, and that when we must choose between the two we must weigh the difference that we can make to the one against the difference that we can make to the other; rather, negative utilitarians hold just that we ought to minimise the bad, that we ought to alleviate suffering as far as we are able to do so. Suppose that I have a choice to make: I can either make the happiest man in the world even happier than he already is, or I can alleviate some of the suffering of the unhappiest man in the world. Suppose further that the difference that I can make to the happy man is much greater than the difference that I can make to the unhappy man. Most utilitarians would say that in this case I ought to help the happy man. As I can make a greater difference to the life of the happy man than I can make to the life of the unhappy man, it is the happy man whom I should help. Negative utilitarians disagree. Negative utilitarians hold that it is more important to alleviate suffering than it is to promote pleasure, and that I should therefore always choose to alleviate suffering rather than promote pleasure when forced to choose between the two. In most supporters of moderate NU the preference to survive is stronger than the wish to be freed from suffering, so that they refuse the idea of a quick and painless destruction of life. Some of them believe that, in time, the worst cases of suffering is defeated and a world of minor suffering can be realized. The big problem with negative utilitarianism is that it appears to require the destruction of the world. The world contains much suffering, and the future, presumably, contains a great deal more suffering than the present. Each of us will suffer many calamaties in the course of our lives, before those lives finally end with the suffering of death. There is a way, however, to reduce this suffering: we could end it all now. With nuclear weapons technology, we have the capability to blow up the planet, making it uninhabitable. Doing so would cause us all to suffer death, but death is going to come to us all anyway, so causing everyone to die will not increase the suffering in the world. Causing us to die now, though, will decrease the suffering in the world; it will prevent us from suffering those calamaties that were going to plague us during the remainder of our lives. Destroying the planet, then, will reduce the suffering in the world. According to negative utilitarianism, then, it is what we ought to do. That, though, is surely absurd. Negative utilitarianism, therefore, is false. References (Karl R. Popper, The Open Society and its Enemies, London 1945).

A history of the telephone

A history of the telephone The Telephone In todays world we can reach into our pocket, grab our cell phone, and dial the person we wish to get in contact with and be conversing with them in seconds. In the present time, this seems like no big deal at all, but it all had to start somewhere. In the early 1800s this was not the case. In order to talk to someone, it had to be face to face, or through a letter. In researching the biographies of the inventors of the telephone, it became apparent that Alexander Graham Bell had the most influence and is credited the most with the invention of the telephone. The first telephone built by Bell along with Thomas Watson was constructed with a funnel, a dish of acid, a small amount of copper wire, all on a wooden stand. Its outstanding to witness the transformations of that time and compare it to the telephone technologies experienced in the present. As with most inventions, Bell did not have the intentions originally of creating a device that would be able to transmit speech with the use of electric current. Instead, Bell originally was only focused on transmitting multiple tones and signals over a single wire. In order to get to this point though, the history of transmitting only electricity over a wire, to sound, to the telegraph needs to be understood somewhat. Stephen Gray was one of the first known scientists to transmit electricity over a wire in 1729 (cite). After him came two men, Pieter van Musschenbroek and Ewald von Kleist, who developed what appears to be the first attempt at a battery known as the Leyden jar(cite), which would be used in experiments, lectures and demonstrations widely in the future. This sort of static electricity would stumble scientists for years doing experiments involving creating and storing the static electricity, but it would never be powerful enough to control anything. The first actual battery was invented by Alessandro Volta, but it still was not powerful enough to have any use with machines. Batteries would become chemically based as they still are, but it was not enough to get to the transmission of voice over wire. What was needed to be understood along with electricity to become closer to the invention of the phone was magnetism. Christian Oersted (cite) started the idea and around 1820 discovered electromagnetism. He founded that a magnetic field could be created by electricity, so the question was could the opposite be possible? One of the main factors that would eventually lead to the invention of the telephone was that of induction. Michael Faraday a year later is the person who reversed Oersteds findings and created, or induced, an electric current using an electric field. This major find in history meant that mechanical energy can produce electrical energy. This would eventually lead to hand cranking and winding, windmills, and watermills. This was the invention of the first generator. Up to this point in history, the transferring of electricity had been completed, but there had been no practical use. In 1830 that changed when Joseph Henry used an electric current for the first time to show communication was possible. In his classroom he created an experiment where he completely an electric circuit, and when the circuit was completely it made a steel bar swing and strike a bell. While Henry did not pursue his findings more, Samuel Morse created the first working telegraph. Samuel Morse is most famously known for coding system he developed in order to use the machine to transmit messages. Morse code uses the telegraph creating electric pulses and sending them from one station to another. At the receiving station the code is broken down into Morses system of dots and dashes. Tapping the telegraph creates a dot, while holding down creates a series of dashes. Morse code and telegraphy became increasing popular as it caused for the decline in the old methods of transporting messages such as the Pony Express. What this all is important for and leads up to is that now inventors and scientists were beginning to focus on the transmission of speech over an electric current, but has not quite happened yet. Charles Bourseul was one of the first to write about transmitting human speech over a wire, but never practiced his idea. It would be Johann Phillip (cite) in 1861 who would create the first telephone seeming device, that did not work.

Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they

Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they make an all around love relationship. LOVE ==== Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they make an all around love relationship. Love is an emotional feeling that a partner or both partners are feeling towards one another. Sex on the other hand is a physical action that is taking place between both partners. Men and women may have different views on love and sex. In the short story, " I fell in love, or my hormones awakened", a little girl has a crush on a young man. The short story demonstrates the responses that men and women have towards love, lust, and hate. In this short story, the young girl who is a freshman in high school believes she is in love with this young man who is a senior in high school. Throughout the story she demonstrates how much she loves him by her obsession to follow him around. He works at a market and she would always make excuses to go to the market and purchase certain items. The only reason she would go is to see her love. The young man worked in the back and she would hang around just to see him walk by the door. She was all excited when he talked to her but all he said was excuse me. Throughout the whole story the young girl has this crush on the young man but the young man is starting to realize this and is thinking what to do about it. Love for women is something that is very serious and delicate. Love for a man is basically not a big deal until it becomes serious in a sense of marriage. This young lady shows how much she loves him by always starring at him in the hallways and he shows nothing when he is feeling something inside for this girl. Basically what I'm sa... ...at girl and not have any strings attached afterwards. The girl was looking for strings attached because girls believe that a kiss means their going to be together. The man just wanted a kiss and the girl wanted to be with him. There responses were different and their interpretations were different as well. In conclusion, the short story showed how a young girl could love a young man who did not even know she existed. She showed her love for this man by doing things out of the ordinary just to see his face. The short story showed the love between a woman and a man and the lust between the two and also to affects of the kiss. The affects of the kiss were basic. They never spoke to each other and never the less have the opportunity to have the chance to talk to each other again. The short story demonstrated many of key points in a crush and love scenario. Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they make an all around love relationship. LOVE ==== Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they make an all around love relationship. Love is an emotional feeling that a partner or both partners are feeling towards one another. Sex on the other hand is a physical action that is taking place between both partners. Men and women may have different views on love and sex. In the short story, " I fell in love, or my hormones awakened", a little girl has a crush on a young man. The short story demonstrates the responses that men and women have towards love, lust, and hate. In this short story, the young girl who is a freshman in high school believes she is in love with this young man who is a senior in high school. Throughout the story she demonstrates how much she loves him by her obsession to follow him around. He works at a market and she would always make excuses to go to the market and purchase certain items. The only reason she would go is to see her love. The young man worked in the back and she would hang around just to see him walk by the door. She was all excited when he talked to her but all he said was excuse me. Throughout the whole story the young girl has this crush on the young man but the young man is starting to realize this and is thinking what to do about it. Love for women is something that is very serious and delicate. Love for a man is basically not a big deal until it becomes serious in a sense of marriage. This young lady shows how much she loves him by always starring at him in the hallways and he shows nothing when he is feeling something inside for this girl. Basically what I'm sa... ...at girl and not have any strings attached afterwards. The girl was looking for strings attached because girls believe that a kiss means their going to be together. The man just wanted a kiss and the girl wanted to be with him. There responses were different and their interpretations were different as well. In conclusion, the short story showed how a young girl could love a young man who did not even know she existed. She showed her love for this man by doing things out of the ordinary just to see his face. The short story showed the love between a woman and a man and the lust between the two and also to affects of the kiss. The affects of the kiss were basic. They never spoke to each other and never the less have the opportunity to have the chance to talk to each other again. The short story demonstrated many of key points in a crush and love scenario.

case analysis :: essays research papers

Case Analysis For the past two months our sales on copper fitting has almost doubled due to the increasing demand from the market and the competitors ¡Ã‚ ¦ unsuccessful selling promotion. However, the problem rises from the overwhelming demand. Many back orders are just piled up on the warehouse manager ¡Ã‚ ¦s desk, and some of the customers lost their patience with us. What we really need right now is to limit or reduce the abnormal demand from the customers by raising the price of our products, but to gain a reputation from our customers, we should consider completing all the backorders with a original price. In a long term, the solution to solve this inventory shortage still relies on sufficient and on-time supply from our supplies. The main reason causing this tremendous and unusual high demand from the customer is the loosing market share of our competitors. Also, there is a possibility that some customers have the false expectation about the future price of the market. They heard the rumor about the cost of raw copper material might go up, so they predict that the price of the copper fitting should go up as well. Consequently, they start to make more purchases and store more inventories more than usual to save some money after the price of copper rises. After a serious discussion with our marketing and warehouse managers, we found a strategy to solve this inventory shortage crisis. We can purchase overstocked merchandises a very low cost from our competitors, since their business is slow, and they do not have enough cash flow. Since most of our competitors are local, we can save a bundle from the shipping and handling if we buy their products. But the disadvantage of this is that it might confuse our customers, because the products we purchase from other companies have their own logos. It might become an opportunity for our competitors to get free advertisement on their products through our market chain. We can also begin placing big orders to our supplier to prevent future shortage. However, downside of this is the risk for overstock inventory. The price of copper fitting is very hard for us to foresee, if the price of fitting drops due to other companies ¡Ã‚ ¦ new wave of promotions or other macroeconomic influences, then it wil l slow our sales down as well as our cash flow.

The Job of Police Officers :: Police Law Enforcement Essays

The Job of Police Officers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A police officer’s duty is to maintain public order, preventing, and detecting crime. The concept of police officers, also known as cops, and law enforcement has been around ever since the ancient Romans had a theory that an organization of â€Å"peacekeepers† would reduce the crime and violence being committed. This theory stuck with society and is still around today. People of law enforcement have a mission when they step into their police car, that mission is to enforce the rules of conduct or law. Of course, accomplishing this mission can be dangerous. Often when a cop leaves his or her house to go to work worries start to set it, such as â€Å"will I be coming back home when my day is over† or â€Å"will a simple traffic stop go sour and someone ends up dead?† These thoughts are apart of the stress that comes with the job and most people are trained to deal with this stress.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Speaking of training, there are classes that a high school student can take to prepare for a career in law enforcement. Psychology, sociology, foreign languages, and computer courses are recommended for those students who plan to take criminal justice as their higher education major. Participating in sports can improve your chances on becoming an officer of law because it improves strength and endurance. Other student activities can be helpful in this career because they help to improve leadership skills and other publications. Every law enforcement agency has different requirements for qualification; however, almost all of them require a college degree. You can either have a degree in police science, administration of justice, public administration, or criminal justice to qualify for employment. English, Sociology, Psychology, Personal Computer Operations, Survey of Criminal Justice, and Principles of Criminology are classes that need to be taken to complete a cr iminal justice major. Almost every college nationwide offers these classes. (â€Å"Police and Detectives†). There are many colleges that offer either an Associate’s degree or a Bachelor’s in criminal justice or any other type of law enforcement class. However, the decision is whether to attend a two-year community college and receive an Associate’s degree or whether to attend a four-year community or state college to receive a Bachelor’s degree. Some colleges that offer an Associate’s degree in criminal justice are Delaware Technical and Community College, Gibbs College, and Hagerstown Business College. Some colleges that offer a Bachelor’s degree in criminal justice are Wilmington College, Brown College, and Parks College.

John Locke and Immanuel Kant Essay

We are here concerned with the relationship between the human mind, somatic-sensory perceptions, objects of perception, and claims of knowledge arising from their interaction, through the philosophies of John Locke and Immanuel Kant. Confounding the ability to find solid epistemological ground, philosophers have, generally speaking, debated whether ‘what’ we know is prima facie determined by the objective, as-they-are, characteristics of the external world 1(epistemological realism) or if the mind determines, as-it-is, the nature of objects through its own experiential deductions (epistemological idealism). The purpose of this paper is to use the synthetical approach of Immanuel Kant, who utilizes a logical schematization of cognition along with experience (transcendental idealism), in the attaining of knowledge, to criticize Locke’s claims against innate ideas, and subsequently, origin and attainment of knowledge. In the first part of this paper, I will explain the major differences which distinguish epistemological realism and idealism. This disambiguation of philosophical jargon is to allow the reader to understand why the debate exists, how it impacts what human’s claims as ‘knowledge’, and whether or not the debate has any contemporary philosophical importance. This last feature is a relevant aspect of the debate since ‘knowledge’ applies to a great many areas of human life, including, but not limited to, the sciences, morality and ethics, and aesthetics. In the second part of this paper, I will outline Kant’s idealism, otherwise known as, transcendental idealism. This section will lay out the terminology in Kant’s epistemology which will act as a backdrop for comparing and contrasting the theory of Locke. This section will also describe the foundation of Kant’s epistemological claims. As mentioned in the introduction, the mind, the somatic-sensory perceptions, and objects of perception are to be accounted for in the debate between idealism and realism. Thus, the second part of the paper will conclude with an understanding of how knowledge arises under the rubric of Kant’s transcendental idealism. The third part of this paper is then dedicated to providing an account of Lockean innate knowledge and its place in our epistemological enquiry. It is presumed that several deficiencies, to be discussed, are apparent in Locke’s epistemological realism without the use of innate ‘ideas’. These deficiencies, however, are percolated only in light of the Kantian juxtaposition for which this section serves the purpose. In the final part of this paper, I will conclude that while Locke’s epistemological theories h ave had a great influence on the progress of epistemology, especially as a critique against rationalism, the idea of no innate ideas impressed upon the mind prior to experience ultimately leads Lockean realism to base claims that all knowledge arises solely from experience as inexhaustively question-begging without Kant’s transcendentalism. Dealing with the problems of realism and idealism can be seen in humans as young as three years old. Although it may not be so apparent to parents at the time, when a child asks, â€Å"How do you know that? ,† they are challenging the method in which a person uses to ‘know’ what they know. However, children, like philosophers, might not be satisfied with the first answer and continue with a meta-inquiry: â€Å"How do you know that? † While this interrogative approach to understanding the world can be frustrating it does illuminate a particular problem in reasoning, generally. That is, at some point we are forced to answer, vacuously, â€Å"I know, because I know. † However, the persistent child philosopher can rebut with, â€Å"How do you know that you know? † The problems intrinsic to the line of questioning above demonstrate a broad epistemological problem. To solve the problem philosophers have sought out ways in order to make ‘what we know’ or explaining ‘how we know’ a bit more reliable or certain. That is, to provide an answer to our inquisitive three year old that breaks the meta-inquiry of knowable certitude. Knowledge, however, is a little tricky because there is an identity problem between the world and the ideas, or thoughts, in our minds. In making claims of knowledge we must presume certain things are true. To say that you know something assumes that you (1) believe the world represented in your mind is exactly as it is whether you perceive it or not and what we have to say about the world must correspond to the way the world is perceived, (2) the world gives us information about objects, which can be accurate, but our minds are the final decision makers about the nature of those objects which can lead to skepticism, or (3) there is nothing stable about the appearances of the world as presented to our minds, and what we know is solely the product of collective reflection, otherwise known as reasoning. In the context of my thesis, it could be argued that if a set of instructions were provided, such as innate ideas in the mind, these three broad, epistemological viewpoints would be narrowed down to one. The first assumption, (1), is the philosophical position known, broadly, as epistemological realism. The second assumption, (2), is more of a dualism in that it is believed there is enough perceived objectivity in the world to have some certain knowledge of it, but it is still subjected to our experiential bias (intuition plays a more integral role in this doctrine). This is a kind of realism in that certain properties about the objects we perceive are unalterable or indisputable since they would retain those characteristics whether or not they are observed. The third position is epistemological idealism. This position holds, generally, that knowledge is not a product of the nature of objects, but instead, derived from the nature of the mind. In other words, the certainty of knowledge is granted through the nature of the mind found within the species deliberating over certain claims. As mentioned, the debate between idealism and realism does have, beyond satisfying the curiosity of toddlers, implications in other areas of philosophy. It is not the focus of this paper, but an example that illustrates potential problems is that of ethics and morality. In epistemological realism, it may be the case that certain acts produce pain in humans, but there is nothing, it is alleged, which a person can point to in the world that would verify this (kind of) pain as bad, good, rightly, wrongly imposed. In other words, epistemological realism holds that we can know facts about the way the world is because our mind is receptive and capable of reproducing them accurately in our minds, but it is another thing to try to extrapolate from these facts/experiences a particular value/meaning to attach to prescriptive claims. In the extreme case, an epistemological realist might claim that all rules of morality are completely made up and merely appeal to our feelings about facts, but we cannot know for certain. As for idealism, morality appears as a less problematic discourse since the very proprietor of knowledge is that which is arbitrating over moral disputes. However, the kind of facts and/or values which moral claims arise, for idealists, are of a strictly theoretical nature and can be said to carry as much empirical or logical certainty as those doubted in the case of realism. At best they are egocentric and/or egotistic. Even in contemporary debates, which diverge subtly from the philosophies this paper examines, the entailment of moral truths from realist or idealist doctrines remains unsolved. In some cases, such as Marxist philosophy, there can be a real confusion about which doctrine actually prevails. The Communist rule of Stalin and Mao is arguably a perversion of epistemological realism for what was actually and indiscernibly expressed as an idealist project. It was in the Critique of Pure Reason that the philosopher Immanuel Kant attempted to settle the problem of epistemological certainty and skepticism. Recalling the relationship between the mind, objects of the world, our perceptive apparatuses, and knowledge, Kant opens up the Critique of Pure Reason with two allusive statements[1]: (1) â€Å"†¦no knowledge our ours is antecedent to experience, but begins with it. † (2) â€Å"†¦though all of our knowledge begins with experience, it by no means follows that all arises out of experience. † Situating these two phrases within the context of realism and idealism requires parsing out the some key phrases within these statements. The first key phrase or term is â€Å"begins. † Kant tells us that â€Å"knowledge begins with experience. † That is, in order to say â€Å"I know,† one must first have an object which makes some kind of sensory impression on the mind. [2]â€Å"For how is it possible,† Kant asks, â€Å"that the faculty of cognition should be awakened into exercise otherwise by means of objects which affect our senses†¦so to convert the raw material of our sensuous impressions into a knowledge of objects? † It is, therefore, objects in the world that first supply us with the â€Å"raw material† for ‘beginning’ the process of attaining knowledge; the term ‘process’ is important here, because the two statements above allude to two different kinds of knowledge. It is not the case, claims Kant, all knowledge is a direct derivative of compounding impressions of raw data. For Kant, and this point lays the foundation of idealism, the mind plays a much more integral role in determining how those impressions are arranged in pre-conscious faculties. This difference plays an important role in the realism/idealism debate since the relationship between the minds’ functioning and knowledge claims depends upon disassociating two different kinds of demonstrations: (1) a method of proving what is known, (2) the acquisition of knowledge. More specifically, the debate between realism and idealism must in some ways reconcile itself with knowledge claims that are a priori and/or a posteriori. The former refers to rationalized knowledge which is universal, necessary and independent of experience (though this last condition, as we will see, is not so clear in Kant’s idealism). The latter is empirical knowledge which is acquired directly through our sensory perception and is validated by the relationship between what is stated and the way the world appears to be. For example, the claim that ‘snow is cold’ is a posteriori since the concept of ‘cold’ is not directly related to ‘snow’ independent of human experience. What is a priori knowledge is the fundamental subject of Kant’s transcendental idealism. According to Kant, a priori knowledge is not just about a method of proof, but also about how we attain a priori knowledge. As mentioned above, Kant is concerned with not only the knowledge that comes from experience, but also knowledge that arises from experience. That is, Kant seeks to settle how a priori knowledge, knowledge that lends epistemological certitude regarding to certain claims, is attained and verified without relying on facts about an external world. It is here that we see explicitly how a priori knowledge and epistemological idealism are integral and linked to the realism/idealism discussion; a priori knowledge is attained through a logical rationalization of concepts about objects that does not require a direct experience of them. In other words, a priori knowledge is knowledge which, according to Kant, begins with experience, but does not necessarily arise from that experience. To unpack this influx of these epistemological connections, it will be instructive to begin with what Kant calls the Transcendental Aesthetic. There is, states Kant, an arrangement to the mind which makes experience possible. This arrangement, or what Kant calls ‘schematism’ not only makes experience possible, but it also limits the scope of possible experiences. To refocus, Kant’s position is that space and time are the two most fundamental conditions for having an experience. All objects which are presented to the mind are done so, necessarily, in time and in space. It is important to recall that objects of perception/experience make impressions on the mind which is done through any or all of the five senses. This means that space and time, in order to be objects of the external world, must possess the property of being sensible. But if space is the condition for which objects are experienced, then space can only exist because space exists (this kind of paradox is addressed in the Antinomies). The same applies to time. Kant, therefore, purports that space and time are mere formal conditionings of objects via the minds operation providing, at the same time, the possibility of experience and experiential limitations. The upshot for Kant is that he loses nothing with this claim. The reality of space and time, as external objects, would lend no more validity to knowledge claims since the properties of space and time are necessary conditions for experience. Thus, making knowledge claims do not change whether space and time are properties of realist or idealist doctrines. In addition, Kant avoids the paradoxes which arise from claiming space and as objects of external reality by placing them as antecedent conditions for experience, as is needed, in the mind. This leads us to what Kant calls ‘synthetical’ claims a priori. By placing objects in space and in time there are going to be properties pertaining to the relations of objects to other objects and properties of objects that will follow the logic of being so represented. When Kant says that knowledge can arise from experience he is referring to the synthetical claims a priori which are determined by the logic of space and time as formal conditions for experiential representations. This is how Kant is able to famously answer how ‘every change has cause’ is necessary without realist fact. Kant admits that change is something that must be experienced, but change is an experience in space and in time. Since time is represented as a succession or the proceeding of an object through/from time t1 to time t2, and change is a relation of cause and effect, and since a cause cannot be its effect (see the paradox of space and time being the conditions of their own existence above), then once we are able to experience an event as ‘change’ in relation to an object (in time and space), we can, and with no further experience, strictly use the concepts of ‘cause’, ‘event’, and ‘change’, to make the a priori claim that ‘every change has a cause’; note, not just a change, or some changes, but every change has a cause. In other words, because of Kant’s transcendental idealism, we are logically justified in attaching certain knowledge of properties and relations in and between objects beyond what is provided by what we know a posteriori. It is through this understanding of Kant’s transcendental idealism that we are to understand and address John Locke’s assertion that the mind, when it first is developed, is nothing more than a blank slate, or ‘tabula rasa’. Locke’s task in Book I [3]â€Å"how men, barely by the use of their natural faculties, may attain to all the knowledge they have, without the help of innate impressions; and may arrive at certainty, without any such original notions or principles. † In Kantian language, impressions are those images that are implanted in the mind by sensuous perception/experience. The concept of innate, for Locke, then, must refer to impressions which are found in the mind before the Kantian impression. That is, as an ‘impression’ for both Locke and Kant, if it is innate, then the impression exists prior to sensual experience and provides some kind of information. This is the opposite of tabula rasa. In the beginning of Book I, Locke does not refer to innate knowledge, which would be the product of extrapolating statements from information; information, in this case, simply refers to facts or what Locke refers to as ‘simple ideas’. On one level there is a similarity between Kant and Locke. Locke goes on to state that [4]â€Å"it would be impertinent to suppose the ideas of colours innate in a creature to whom God had giveth sight, and the power to receive them from external objects. † For Kant, the recognition/knowledge of a color would require, first, that the eye experience what color happens to be. Thus, claims regarding color fall within the realm of a posteriori knowledge. In addition, the perception of color and the conception/idea of color are limited to the mode of experience one can have for color. One cannot hear, taste, or feel the color green, which, a priori, would require the mind to be further equipped with the innate condition/information of predetermining how to file color when it is sensed. In other words, the brain must already know that the concept ‘green’, if it is innate, is a concept pertaining strictly to sight. However, these are not the claims for which Locke is contesting for the proof that innate principles do not exist. More controversially, and, I believe, in opposition to Kant’s transcendental idealism, are the claims that ‘whatsoever is, is’ and ‘it is impossible for the same thing to be and not be’ cannot be shown to be necessarily true based on innate principles. It is in this claim that we find evidence for epistemological realism in Locke’s philosophy; for if it was to be true that ‘whatsoever is, is’ for Locke, then the claim must correspond necessarily to the way the world is through experience. In other words, it must be a fact that ‘whatsoever is, is’ as a result of experiencing the ‘whatsoever’. This being the case, Locke goes on to detail the [5]â€Å"the steps by which the mind attains several truths. † Like Kant, Locke claims that it is through sensory perception that the mind is imprinted with particular ideas. Unlike Kant, however, Locke claims that it is â€Å"by degrees† does there become a habitual familiarity which accompanies these ideas to be stored in the memory. The scene is analogous to what we assume to be the learning pattern of a baby; that through the incremental addition of experiences and seeing particular relations exposed in those experiences, the mind is furnished with the materials which become the objects of reflection. This being the case, it would seem that knowledge is perhaps not really knowledge at all, but an imitation of habitual experiences. But as Hume correctly pointed out, there is no certainty in consistency, and reasoning based on such a consistency. This justifies, tentatively, skepticism toward Locke’s claim that certainty can be attained without innate principles. Another criterion for innate principles, according to Locke, is that one must be aware of them as something knowable in order to prove their existence. Locke mentions how clinically insane and infants are unable to articulate what they know and how it is they know it. Locke gives the example of an infant not knowing [6]â€Å"that three and four equal to seven, till he comes to be able to count to seven. † This examination of Locke’s claims puts forth the question of whether or not a person ‘knows’ that three and four equal seven, or if a person is simply countenancing facts from his or her experience which is guided by epistemological realism. From a Kantian perspective, the matter is more about dealing with quantity (three, seven, four), the relationship between concepts (plus, equals), and the knowledge which can arise from predetermined, logical schemata in human cognition (four and four is greater than seven if three and four equal seven). It is not that Kant would assert that a language-less baby unexposed to elementary mathematics can know that three and four equal seven. Further, a baby would also not be able to articulate, even if its mind were furnished with the knowledge that ‘whatsoever is, is’ since a baby simply lacks the language to be able to say so. Inverting Locke’s challenge to see if the claim ‘whatsoever is, is’ can be assented to by babies and the mentally handicapped presents a fundamental problem his argument: the burden of proof is on Locke to provide valid counterfactuals to a baby and/mentally challenged persons. In other words, we should take Locke seriously when he moves beyond a simple imitation of what the world shows him and demonstrate when ‘whatsoever is, is not’ and ‘it is possible for something to be entirely red and entirely green at the same time’. Then Locke must move to show how these claims are grounded in a realist epistemology. This criticism bolsters the Kantian project in that transcendental idealism not only presents the possibility for experience, but also limits experience at the same time. A feature Locke is lacking. Without innate ideas, or some kind of cognitive structure which makes sense of perception, Locke must, in order to remain consistent, assume that there is a possibility that something can be simultaneously all red and all green and that we could perceive it when it does happen. Kant is essentially claiming that if there is an experienced contradiction such as, ‘something is simultaneously all red and all green’, then we can be pretty sure that the source of this confusion lies in our cognitive faculties and not in the world. It is not quite so clear with the Lockean project, however. Lockean realism takes for granted that the mind is representing an accurate portrayal of the world even in the case of a contradiction. This kind of reliance does not provide any kind of certainty or attainment of truths as Locke claims. On the contrary, what we would know is simply a regurgitation of experience thus creating confusion on where the source of a contradiction lies in the case one is presented in experience. In conclusion, when we compare the progress of epistemology as a historically situated study, then we come to see John Locke as an influential philosopher who challenged the rationalist doctrine which denied experience and empirical facts as integral to what we count as knowledge. It is that very project, however, that led John Locke and epistemological realism down a path of incoherency when both promised certainty through observation without grounding any source for that certainty. For its faults, which are not mentioned here, Kantian transcendentalism has been shown to be a more tenable answer to the idealism/realism debate as it has been contrasted with John Locke’s realism.

New Journalism

Is New Journalism a literary genre? Analyse with reference to the literary techniques used in two examples of New Journalism. Word Count – 2231 I suppose the most common sense point at which to start is by defining New Journalism, or Literary Journalism, as Eisenhuth and McDonald (2007, p. 38) say it is called at the â€Å"upper end of the spectrum. † The Collins Concise Dictionary (1999, p. 995) defines New Journalism as â€Å"a style of journalism, using techniques borrowed from fiction to portray a situation of event as vividly as possible. †Wikipedia (2010) defines it as â€Å"a style of 1960s and 1970s news writing and journalism that used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. † The meaning of New Journalism has evolved over the the past one hundred years or so and has supposedly been coined by many a person, including the so-called founding father of New Journalism, Matthew Arnold (Roggenkamp, 2005, p. xii) The term, with relevance t o the above definitions, was codified with its current meaning by Tom Wolfe in his 1973 collection of New Journalism articles,  The New Journalism,  which included works by – most notably – himself, Truman Capote, Hunter S.Thompson, Norman Mailer, and Joan Didion. With reference to the aforementioned New Journalists, Tom Wolfe, in a 1972  New York Magazine  article, said, â€Å"I know they never dreamed that anything they were going to write for newspapers or magazines would wreak such evil havoc in the literary world; causing panic, dethroning the novel as the number one literary genre, starting the first new direction in American literature in half a century. Nevertheless, that is what has happened. † He went on to say that, â€Å"Bellow, Barth, Updike – even the best of the lot,Philip Roth – the novelists are all out there ransacking the literary histories and sweating it out, wondering where they now stand. ‘Damn it all, Saul, th e  Huns  have arrived. ‘† So, this uproar is what begs several questions that these writers felt the need to be answered. Is New Journalism a literary genre, simply because it utilises the tools of fiction to give it colour? Is it a journalistic genre? Is it a genre all by itself? Imagine journalism and literature both being a circle side by side; they stand alone.They are pushed together when attempting to work out the place of New Journalism in the world of writing; how far do they overlap? And if, when they meet, there is an even overlap, surely that creates a distinct genre? Some argue that, as well as not being a literary genre, New Journalism is not a stand-alone genre at all. Murphy (1974, p. 15) says that, in his eyes, the main charge levelled against New Journalism is â€Å"criticism against it as a distinct genre. † Truman Capote seems to disagree with this and says, â€Å"It seems to me that most contemporary novelists are too subjective.I wanted t o exchange it, creatively speaking, for the everyday objective world we all inhabit. Reporting can be made as interesting as fiction, and done as artistically. † (Plimpton, 1967, p. 14) This suggests that Capote believes that New Journalism falls on neither side of the fence. Instead, New Journalism is all about taking journalism with one hand, taking literature with the other, and pulling them both together. He wanted to make literature more objective, as journalism is, and he wanted to make journalism more creative, as literature is. Conley (1998, p. ) notes that, â€Å"Journalism and fiction are not usually mentioned in the same sentence unless in an unflattering sense, yet they have much in common. † Again, we are directed towards the two forms as separate, but partially overlapped. Weiss (2004, p. 177) says that, â€Å"The tugs and pulls of fact versus fiction and memory versus imagination are evident within the genre of journalism. † She goes on to say that , â€Å"Journalism splintered from early reporting and took on many of the attributes of literature. There are many attributes of literary journalism which overlap with fiction. Again, this theme of convergence is present in her thoughts. Weiss (2004, p. 179) asks a good question: â€Å"Has the blurring of lines from non-fiction to fiction become excessive and confusing? † Roorbach (2001, p. 7) goes some way in answering this and states that â€Å"an over-insistence on verifiable accuracy has about the same deadening effect on art as an over-insistence on conformity in style and subject. † So it follows that the best course of action when considering the place of New Journalism is to nod towards the pieces of work that take responsibility for both fact and fiction.Somerset Maugham (1938, p. 19) agreed that fiction and journalism are intrinsically linked and says, of news, that â€Å"it is raw material straight from the knacker's yard and we are stupid if we turn our noses up at it because it smells of blood and sweat. † These are the words of a literary great who feels that writers must take journalism into account in their work. Believing there was whole new genre, Capote called his book,  In Cold Blood,  a non-fiction novel, which is a book that employs the conventions of fiction to tell a true story. The work is about the mass murder of a Kansas farming family.Although the book was the peak of Capote's career as a writer, and was hailed as an international success, it – along with New Journalism as a whole – was heavily criticised, due to facts being changed, scenes being added and dialogue being made-up. This criticism can be seen as a positive thing though, in terms of defining New Journalism. By stating that aspects of his style of writing makes it neither journalism, nor literature, the criticism creates a new genre for Capote's work to sit, comfortably, in. Interestingly, Capote, along with Mailer and many other authors, never agreed to their style's comparisons to Wolfe's school of narration.Much to the contrary, many of these writers would deny that their work was generically relevant to other new Journalists at the time. In a 1966  Atlantic  article, Dan Wakefield said that the non-fiction work of Capote elevated reporting to the level of literature. Although praising the work of Capote, this goes some way in saying that literature is better than journalism. This is evidence for what Capote said his critics felt:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Combining literature and journalism is little more than a literary solution for fatigued novelists. † (Plimpton, 1967, p. 16) Newfield (1967, p. 0) said that, â€Å"This new genre defines itself by claiming many of the techniques that were once the unchallenged terrain of the novelist: tension, symbol, cadence, irony, prosody, imagination. † Gay Talese's 1966 article for  Esquire  magazine,  Frank Sinatra Has a Cold,  was a very influential pie ce of New Journalism that gave a very detailed portrait of Frank Sinatra, without ever having interviewed him. Talese undertook huge amounts of research, as did many of the New journalists, including Capote with  In Cold Blood. Unlike Capote, Talese did not invent facts of characters.His article is, therefore, an example of New Journalism that falls under the category of a journalistic genre, as opposed to a distinct genre. In agreement with the methods of Talese and critical of those of Capote, writer Barry Seigel, who heads up a literature and journalism course at the University of California, says that he teaches of â€Å"nonfiction prose that transcends the limits of daily journalism. † He nonetheless â€Å"rejects absolutely the notion of imagining or otherwise fabricating quotes, inventing characters or blurring different sources into composites. (Eisenhuth and McDonald, 2007, p. 41) If the aim of most New Journalism is to write so  vividly and report in such inten se bursts that a scene leaps from the page, Talese goes in the other direction. He slowly drills down through the mundane subterranean reality of human existence to its â€Å"fictional† core. He said he wanted â€Å"to evoke the fictional current that flows between the reality. † Neither of these examples, nor any of the quotes gleaned from research, point towards New Journalism falling under the category of a literary genre.Obviously there will be those that do not wish to have it associated with the word literature; they see it as a bastard child. Hartsock (2000, p. 7) states that New Journalism â€Å"reflects a rough, but not definite split between journalism and literature. † He notes that some commentators, such as Lounsberry, who is affiliated with English studies, prefer to view it as a literary genre. Others, such as Connery, who is affiliated with journalism, prefer to view it as a journalistic genre. He adds that, â€Å"there long has been a bias agai nst journalism by English studies. Eisenhuth and McDonald (2007, p. 49) say that some journalists tend to see the term as ‘bunging it on a bit,' but the fact is that the notion of New Journalism is gaining acceptance, even in university English departments, which have traditionally disdained the reporting milieu that has nurtured so many novelists – the likes of Ernest Hemingway and Graham Green; and in more recent times, journalists turned non-fiction writers and novelists like Robert Drewe. † Drewe was the focus of Conley's 1998 article,  Birth of a Novelist, Death of a Journalist.Drewe is Australia's most prominent author turned journalist. His first book, The Savage Crows, was well received,  although at the time with some surprise, â€Å"like here is a dog that can ride a bicycle and play a trumpet at the same time, which was sort of flattering and slightly offensive† He said his transition to fiction entailed a grudging acceptance because of Austr alia’s tradition that novelists either came from the School of Hard Knocks – â€Å"the realist, outback, dingo-trapping background† – or from English Departments. (Conley, 1998, p. 0) There is still, to this day, an enormous amount of debate surrounding New Journalism and its place in the world of writing. There is, and always will be, a furore amongst steadfast writers that refuse to accept it into the literary world. Connery acknowledges â€Å"the difficulty of the form's identity,† and that our understanding of New Journalism as a genre â€Å"is still very much emerging. † (Hartsock, 2000, p. 3) The mere fact that Connery seeks to find a justification at all highlights the critical discomfort with the form's identity.Weber argues that this discomfort comes because â€Å"this category of serious writing is not well defined, and the many different terms used to describe it do not help. † (Hartsock, 2000, p. 6) Here, he is obviously r eferring to the terms Literary Journalism, New Journalism, and Literary Non-fiction; which vary in use, depending on the commentator. It seems that an answer will never be reached as to whether or not New Journalism is a stand-alone genre. Without taking the sceptics and critics too much to heart, New Journalism seems to be nestled, just fine, in its own world. Lounsberry (1990, p. 5) sums things up in a nutshell, despite her affiliation towards New Journalism as a literary genre. She states that, â€Å"it does not really matter what name we give to this type of discourse; it is possible to study it without actually placing it under any specific category. † References Books Collins Concise Dictionary, 1999. New Journalism. Glasgow: Harper Collins Publishers. Eisenhuth, S, MacDonald, W. , 2007. The Writer's Reader – Understanding Journalism and Nonfiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hartsock, J. C. , 2000. A history of American Literary Journalism.The Emerge nce of a Modern Narrative Form. Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press. Lounsberry, B. , 1990. The Art of Fact – Contemporary Artists of Nonfiction. Lincoln: Greenwood Press. Maugham, S. , 1938. The Summing Up. London: Heinemann. Roggenkamp, K. , 2005. Narrating the News: New Journalism and Literary Genre in Late Nineteenth Century Newspapers and Fiction. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. Roorbach, B. ,2001. The Art of Truth: Contemporary Creative Nonfiction. New York: Oxford University Press. Articles Conley, D. , 1998. Birth of a Novelist, Death of a Journalist.Australian Studies in Journalism 7,  46-73, p1. Murphy, J. E. , 1974. The New Journalism: A Critical Perspective. Journalism Monographs,  34, p15. Newfield, J. , 1967. Hooked and Dead. New York Times Book Review,  May 7, p. 20. Wakefield, D. , 1966. The personal Voice and the Impersonal Eye. The Atlantic,  pp. 86-89 Weiss, C. , 2004. Reviving the Elephant; Bringing Literary Journalism Back into the Classroom. Schenley High School,  p173. Websites Plimpton, G. , 1967. Truman Capote: In Which Various Friends, Enemies, Acquaintances, and Detractors Recall His Turbulent Career. Online] Available at: ;http://www. thefreelibrary. com/Truman+Capote%3A+In+Which+Various+Friends,+Enemies,+Acquaintances,+and†¦ -a020210227; [Accessed 27 November 2010) Wikipedia, 2010. New Journalism. [Online] Available at: ;http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/New_Journalism; [Accessed 27 November 2010]. Wolfe, T. , 1972. Participant Reveals Main Factors Leading to Demise of the Novel, Rise of New Style Covering Events. New York Magazine. [Online] Available at: ;http://nymag. com/news/media/47353/; [Accessed 27 November 2010].

Effects of Computer Society Essay

Traditionally, courses that deal with computers and society issues focus primarily on enumerating the various ways in which computers impact society. This is done by listing categories of topics such as privacy, computers in medicine, military uses of computers, etc. Classic cases of computer abuse or errant systems are typically described in detail, as a way of simply making students more aware of how computers affect society. These examples are meant to serve as warnings to future professionals, in the hopes that they will practice their profession with greater care. What is missing from these discussions, however, is  why  computers have the impact they do on society. What are the characteristics that are the root of this impact? Are there fundamental differences between this technology and others that have transformed our world in the past? The intent of developing a list of these characteristics is that it could lead to a better understanding of the nature of the social impact of computers. In this way, it might be possible to examine a new computer project at the time of its  design  (not, as is the usual case, a long time after the project has been implemented and disseminated) to determine its potential impacts as a social change agent. The characteristics given below are not necessarily unique to computer technology. However, in many instances computers have created situations that were previously impossible to accomplish (such as space flight), were essentially inconceivable until the technology was applied, or at least were very difficult to achieve without the aid of computer technology. Furthermore, even though other technologies may have had impacts similar to computers in many ways, computer technology has greatly amplified their effects to the point of entirely overshadowing any previous technology’s impact. Finally, the term  computer technology  is meant to be inclusive of any device that is essentially controlled by a basic computer (CPU, program, etc. ). This would include, therefore, modern telephones, VCRs, microwave ovens, CAT scanners, supermarket scanners, and the like. The following are in no particular order. Also, some devices or examples are likely to fit into more than one of the categories below: (1) Ubiquity – It is perhaps stating the obvious that computers appear to be everywhere today. Even when we don’t encounter them directly in their various forms of modern convenience devices, such as digital watches, microwave ovens, VCRs, and the like, we generate transactions that are processed via computers without actively doing anything: the utility companies are recording our usage, the phone company records incoming calls, our answering machine might be recording a message while we are doing something else, someone is performing a credit check on us, etc. (2) Magnification – Computers tend toward magnification in several different ways. First, the explosion of the availability of information is due in large part to the computer’s ability to generate, collect, and store an ever increasing amount of raw data. Since the ability to create and collect data is growing exponentially, so too is the generation of information that can be synthesized from this data. Second, the types of negative impacts a single error can have has grown enormously with computer technology. Finally, the number of people directly affected by a system error has also grown enormously, to where a single software system literally can affect millions directly. 3) Accessibility – Access to information continues to increase at hard to believe speeds. Many information resources are available only in digital form, via, for instance, the Internet. As more information is converted to digital form (e. g. voice and video), the ability to duplicate and distribute such information increases enormously. Indeed, there are some forms of publishing that can exist only within the context of a computer system. The concept of hypertext and hypermedia (including audio and video), the ability to create non-linear accessibility to information, was conceived out of the ability to randomly access information via computers. Its increasing success easily shows how important information in a digital form has become already. (Oz, 1994). (5) Lack of Accountability – It has become a popular complaint that it is getting more and more difficult to locate a human being who is willing to accept responsibility for an error made by a computerized system. While it is tempting to blame such problems on incompetent employees, in truth the problem may be a poor user interface, lack of training, or an error in the software, none of which can be solved by those providing the front-line service. Another difficulty is finding someone who will, indeed, fix an error in an account. It is often the case that service representatives are reluctant to accept the responsibility for making a necessary change. In addition, it can often be difficult to even find a human being to deal with a problem. Getting lost in a voice-mail system has become a modern urban legend. (Nissenbaum, 1994). (6) Temporality – Computers have several effects on time and the timeliness of information. It seems that computer technology is to blame in large part for the â€Å"speed p† of modern society – everything has to get done faster, be there sooner, be available immediately. Another form of temporality in computer systems is that information can be retained over long periods of time, even when they appear to have been destroyed (consider the classic case of Col. Oliver North). There is little reason that information should be entirely lost any more, even due to accident. And it is reas onable to suspect that every scrap of information generated today will be available virtually forever. Another temporal shift for which computers have been responsible is that people who work together do not necessarily have to do so at the same time. Finally, services and information are more frequently available on a 24-hour basis. This allows people to request a service or seek information when it fits their schedule, rather than when it fits the service provider’s schedule. (7) Spatiality – Computers have done more to shorten distances than any previous technology, even the supersonic jet. It is possible to send large amounts of data, messages, video, etc. virtually anywhere in the world via networks such as Internet. Long distance learning, using information databases or video feeds of courses via satellite, is a reality for a growing portion of our modern society. We can now even be on the move when we talk with someone on the phone, or receive a fax. (8) Surveillability – Is there any doubt that computers have made surveillance easier than at any time in history? In addition to the usual surveillance equipment such as cameras and microphones, transactional data is increasingly being collected for virtually all types of transactions, even cash purchases and the acquisition of services. There has even been discussion by the government of using a universal health card, which is seen by many as the first step toward finalizing the move (begun with the co-opting of the social security number) in the US toward a national identification card. (9) Shifting of Relationships/Changes in Intercommunication Protocols – One of the more difficult characteristics to track is how computer technology has changed communication between people and groups of people. In particular, the use of email has been shown to eliminate a lot of the usual visual and verbal cues we often use in communicating with one another (whch can be viewed as both an advantage and as a disadvantage). In addition to removing such cues, computer-mediated communications mask attributes such as race, gender, age, or physical disability, in addition, perhaps, to the person’s social or management status within an organization. (Grudin, 1994; Perrole, 1987). (10) Illusion of Precision – It is not difficult to make many (perhaps even most) people who are not in the computer field believe that any numeric result generated by a computer is correct. Those not well versed in the hardware of computers have little understanding of the fact that numbers must be converted back and forth between decimal and binary forms, or that there is a limitation on the accuracy of numbers due to memory constraints. As a result, they willingly accept values generated by a computer as infinitely accurate. (Liffick, 1985). Conclusion The characteristics described above are factors in the social impact of computer technology. For most there is at least anecdotal evidence of their existence (with seemingly countless examples). For some, there is also experimental evidence. It has finally become widely accepted that technology is not value neutral, as originally thought. By examining this list and using it as a set of landmarks for evaluating new systems, it may be possible to better anticipate the social impact of new systems, prior to their dissemination.

The Mayas and the Incas.

The Mayas and the Incas are two Indian civilizations that inhabited South America and left a significant mark on the culture and history of these places. They both have legends that link their arrival to immigration from the East; however it is more likely that the immigration occurred from the north. Though these two cultures had some similarities one of these was not language as they had several differences in their native tongues. However, regardless of the differences legends have claimed a community of origin between these two civilizations, in the remote past.The Inca civilization has a reign of less than 200 years in comparison to the Maya civilization and has its base in the area that is now Peru. They flourished in the highlands of the Andes and their reign is estimated as being from AD 1438 – 1534. They also extended into the areas that are now Ecuador and Chile. There are links that show that this civilization was derived from a warlike tribe that moved into the val ley at Cuzco. Their reign was estimated to span from the Maule River to the Quito.In contrast, the Maya civilization emerged in BC 1000 and lasted more than a thousand years in the Yucatan area of Mexico into Guatemala, Belize and Honduras. They were responsible for the creation of many cities in their time such as Tikal and Uxual. They also had a wide span however their system of governance varied greatly and there was no emperor but rather several powerful heads in each city. There was also no capital as each city ruled itself.In terms of religious practices both civilizations practiced sacrificing of animals and at times of humans as well.   They also both worshipped several Gods. The Incas believed in a creator and many sky gods. They called gold the â€Å"sweat of the sun† and viewed it as precious only in materials used for ceremonial items. They focused on rituals that they believed led to healing and increasing harvest. In a trait similar to the Mayas, in times of c alamity they believed in the sacrifice of humans.These times included earthquakes and drought. The Inca also had a similar religion to the Inca. They also believed in several nature Gods and in the use of sacrifice to appease the Gods. The thought that the feeding of blood to the Gods would also appease and satisfy the Gods so that their  children would be healthy and their crops would be good. Religion was important in daily life and this is evident from the information that has been attained from pottery, the walls of buildings and murals.Inca architecture was ornate. The capital city was Cuzco and this was the richest city in the Americas at that time. The temples were decorated with gold plates. There were many royal estates and palaces that were for the nobility and were constantly maintained by the builders and artisans. The Mayas had elaborate buildings as well but were more advanced in their use of material.They used concrete in their construction and built pyramids as mon uments to Gods and leaders. Some of these pyramids were as tall as 200 feet. They also had a distinctive style of construction. The pyramids that they built the tops were flat unlike those in Egyptian architecture. This meant that their leaders were able to climb and sit atop the pyramids.There were mainly three staples in the Inca diet. These were corn, potato and a seed called quinua. They were advanced in thinking and grew a surplus of food for times of war and drought. The quinua was the seed that was used to produce flour and cereal.Corn was used in religious ceremonies and to make a drink called Chicha. The Maya diet was also largely reliant on agriculture. They cultivated corn, beans, sweet potatoes, squash and yucca. Corn was the main staple in their diet. They also sourced meat from the hunting of deer, monkey, duck and wild turkey. The product that was limited in consumption to the nobles was chocolate and was referred to as the drink of the Gods.The Incas had rulers that enforced a strong work ethic in them. Though they had leisure time this time was focused more on religious festivals. Many festivals would take place that were to honour leaders, Gods and to help with a good harvest. The Maya, in contrast, actually had a lot more activities. They had a game called â€Å"pok-ol-pok† that used a rubber ball.This game is very similar to what we know today as soccer. As in soccer the hands were not used to touch the ball and the ball had to be hit though a ring. This game could be very competitive and sometimes the losing team would lose their life. They also had trumpets made from conch shells and drums that they used to play music. Some other instruments included the turtle shell rattles and the pottery flutes. They loved to dance and play music and would honour the rulers and Gods by doing these activities.Both societies were classed societies. The Maya had at the bottom of the ladder the slaves. This was followed by the peasants, artisans, no bility, priests and the leaders at the top. There was no supreme leader. The farmers raised crops and worked hard as they did not use animals to prepare fields. Craftsmen made murals, pottery, jewellery and many other items.They also had piercing and tattoos like today but viewed beauty differently. The Inca had a similar class but with labourers below and an Emperor at the top. Farmers also worked hard and grew crops but also reared animals. The llamas were used for transport and the alpacas for their wool. The Inca painted their faces and also had piercings. They in addition had the ear of boys pierced in a manhood ceremony and a gold disc placed in the hole. When the boy grew older this disc was replaced with larger and larger discs. This was considered to be a sign of beauty.The culture of the Maya was very developed. They possessed a written language and books. They also had experts in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. As already mentioned, their architecture was excepti onal and they constructed palaces and pyramids with great skill. The writings of the Maya are perhaps on of the first writings of the Americas. They utilized pictures and symbols to represent words and thoughts.These symbols can be known as glyphs and have been found in books and walls. Their books were folded like a fan and were called codices. Their number system was advanced and they based it on the number 20 unlike our present system that uses 10. The Maya could subtract and add. It has also been seen that they were able to plot the movement of the sun, moon and Venus. They performed calculations on the orbit of Venus that have been found to be very accurate today. Their calendar is the most accurate one from the ancient world. They based their year on a 365 day system over one thousand years ago.The Inca culture was not as advanced and they did not have any written language. They did have the foresight to have verbal historians in their society that ensured that their history w as passed along through the generations. The form of mathematics that was practiced was also not very developed. They used a quipus to keep track of numbers. This consisted of coloured strings and knots tied. The quipu rememberers were able to translate the knots and keep track of amounts.The method by which the quipu was used is not known today. Although not  very advanced like the Maya in many aspects the Inca were also skilled in terms of architecture. The material they used was stone and not concrete however they were skilled enough to be able to fit the stones perfectly without the use of mortar. They also had the insight to build a lot of roads as much as 10,000 miles in addition to many temples, palaces and bridges. Their bridges were great structures that were made using a rope suspension method and they were advanced in terms of irrigation.The Inca and the Maya civilizations both have a lot of similarities and differences. The similarities in their religious beliefs are e vident on further inspection. These may be due to the fact that they most probably have in their lineages common ancestors or roots. The belief in sacrifices as well as the similarities in some of their Gods points clearly to this. The importance that the societies have placed on religion is also evident in their cultures.One factor that can account for the advanced development of the Maya civilization is the fact that they were an old civilization. This civilization had a lot of time to develop. The time period that they existed for was over a thousand years giving them a lot of time to develop, grow, explore and investigate the world around them and ways to improve their life. This information could then be passed along through the generations and built on and further developed with each successive generation.The Inca civilization, however, is one that was very young in age. They were around for only a period of about 200 years. This means that they were not able to advance to the degree of the Maya civilization within that timeframe. There achievements are in fact great for the limited time that they were in their prime. Their language given time, I am certain would have developed into a written language as well.Location of the civilizations can also account for differences in their diet and daily life. Though in the southern continent of the Americas the types of crops planted and reared would have varied from area to area and this would affect the type of food that was consumed by the population.The governance system of the civilizations may also account for some of the differences. The Mayas were not dependent on the governance of an Emperor and were able to function as independent cities while the Inca had  a supreme Emperor. This may indeed have held back the development of the Inca as they were dependent on the genius of one individual whereas the Maya were led by several leaders in many cities.  These reasons may account for the differences and s imilarities in the Inca and Maya civilizations. These civilizations had many similarities and many differences but were both in their own way and in their own time great in terms of their achievements and development.ReferencesStrohl, M. and S. Schneck. Mayas, Aztecs, Incas: Cooperative Learning Activities. New York: Scholastic Professional Books, 1994.Baquedano, E. Eyewitness Books: Aztec, Inca, and Maya. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1993.Mesoamerican Civilizations: Mayas and Incas. 24th April, 2007Bleeker, S and Sasaki, K. The Maya: Indians of Central America. Published: Morrow, 1961.